Sociological Research Methods

Scientific Method

Standard procedure for acquiring and verifying empirical (concrete, scientific) knowledge.

1). Identify a problem or asks a general question.

2). Conduct Literature Review.

3). Form a hypothesis; give operational definitions to variables.

4). Choose research design or method.

5). Collect data.

6). Analyze data.

7). Disseminate findings.

Types of Research Methods

1). Ethnography- Naturalistic method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they attribute to their activities; also, the written work that results from the study. Means writing culture.

• most commonly used research methods in the social sciences.
• qualitative method that allows for the study of a wide variety of    people/places.
• Fieldwork takes place in social environments out in society.
• Studies firsthand day-to-day lives of the people there.

2). Participant observation: methodology associated with ethnography whereby the researcher both observes, and becomes a mentor in a social setting.

• Gain entry/access to the chosen field site/setting.
• Establish good rapport with their subjects.
• Data collected primarily through writing detailed field notes every day to document what happened.
• Auto-ethnography- form of participant observation where the feelings and actions of the researcher become a focal point of the ethnographic study.
• Brief, sketchy notes in the field, writing key words or short quotations in small notebooks, on cocktail napkins, or in text messages.
• Thick description-the presentation of detailed data on interactions and meaning within a cultural context, from the perspective of its members.
• Explores all the possible meanings of a phenomenon (for example, a blinking eye) within a particular cultural setting.
• Goal was to give poor single mothers the ability to personally answer the question that wealthier Americans ask of them.  (Reality of Single Motherhood)

3). Interviews-person to person conversations for the purpose of gathering information by means of questions posed to respondents.

• Conduct interviews systematically and with a more scientific approach than is used for TV or in NEWS.
• Sometimes interviews are the Only method used for research project.
• Participant observations/analysis of existing sources.
• Always conducted by researcher.
• Interviews to collect data about a particular question/project sociologist must first identify a target population.
• Most are conducted one on on but some organize focus groups.
• Compose good questions is very difficult part of interviewing.
• Covers rang of issues related with the project.
• Imposes a limit on the possible response.

4). Surveys- research method based on questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population.

• Most surveys are composed of closed-ended questions, or those for which all possible answer are provided.
• Answers may be as simple as a “yes” or “no” or more complex.
• Some offer such options as “don’t know” or “doesn’t apply”.
• Write-in questions.
• Questionnaires are important.
• Questionnaires should be clear and easy to follow.
• Sampling techniques is important element.

5). Existing Sources-materials that have been produced for some other reason but that can be used as data for social research.

• Variables and relationships among them.
• Researchers must decide which analytic tools will be best suited to their research questions.
• Analysis existing sources can be qualitative or quantitative in nature.
• New data sets can challenge old findings.

6). Experimental Methods- formal tests of specific variables and effects, performed in a setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled.

• Used by social scientists, some of them interested in racial discrimination and gender socialization.
• Strive to develop precise tools with with help to observe, record, and measure their data.
• Attempt to control for all possible variables  except the one under investigation.

Quantitative research – research that translates the social world into numbers that can be treated mathematically; this type of research often tries to find cause-and-effect relationships (page 41)

Qualitative research – research that works with nonnumerical data such as texts, field notes, interview transcripts, photographs, and tape recordings; this type of research more often tries to understand how people make sense of their world (page 41)

Scientific Method – a procedure for acquiring knowledge that emphasizes collecting concrete data through observation and experimentation (page 41)

Literature Review – a thorough search through previously published studies relevant to a particular topic (page 41)

Hypothesis – a theoretical statement explaining the relationship between two or more phenomena (page 42)

Variables – two or more phenomena that a researcher believes are related; these will be examined in the experiment (page 42)

Operational Definition – a clear and precise definition of a variable that facilitates its measurement (page 42)

Correlation – a relationship between variables in which they change together and may or may not be causal (page 43)

Causation – a relationship between variables in which a change in one directly produces a change in the other (page 43)

Intervening Variable – a third variable, sometimes overlooked, that explains the relationship between two other variables (page 43)

Spurious Correlation – the appearance of causation produced by an intervening variable (page 43)

Paradigm Shift- a major change in basic assumptions of a particular scientific discipline (page 43)

Ethnography – a naturalistic method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they attribute to their activities; also the written work that results from the study (page 45)

Participant Observation – a methodology associated with ethnography whereby the researcher both observes and becomes a member in a social setting (page 45)

Access- the process by which an ethnographer gains entry to a field setting (page 45)

Rapport – a positive relationship often characterized by mutual trust or sympathy (page 45)

Field Notes – detailed notes taken by an ethnographer describing her activities and interactions, which later become the basis of the analysis (page 45)

Autoethnography – a form of participant observation where the feelings and actions of the researcher become a focal point of the ethnographic study (page 45)

Thick Description – the presentation of detailed data on interactions and meaning within a cultural context, from the perspective of its members (page 45)

Reflexivity – how the identity and activities of the researcher influence what is going on in the field setting (page 46)

Grounded Theory – an inductive method of generating theory from data by creating categories in which to place data and then looking for relationships among categories (page 46)

Replicability  – research that can be repeated and, thus, later verified by other researchers (page 46)

Validity – the accuracy of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which a researcher is measuring what he thinks he is measuring (page 46)

Representativeness – the degree to which a particular studied group is similar to, or represents, any part of the larger society (page 46)

Bias – an opinion held by the researcher that might affect the research or analysis (page 46)

Interviews – person-to-person conversations for the purpose of gathering information by means of questions posed to respondents (page 48)

Respondent – a participant in a study from whom the researcher seeks to gather information (page 48)

Target Population – the entire group about which a researcher would like to be able to generalize (page 48)

Sample – the members of the target population who will actually be studied (page 48)

Focus Group – a process for interviewing a number of participants together that also allows for interaction among group members (page 49)

Informed consent – a safeguard through which the researcher makes sure that respondents are freely participating and understand the nature of the research (page 49)

Closed-ended question – a question asked of a respondent that imposes a limit on the possible responses (page 49)

Open-ended question – a question asked of a respondent that allows the answer to take whatever form the respondent chooses (page 49)

Leading Questions – questions that predispose a respondent to answer in a certain way (page 49)

Double-barreled questions  – questions that attempt to get at multiple issues at once, and so tend to receive incomplete or confusing answers (page 49)

Life history – an approach to interviewing that asks for a chronological account of the respondent’s entire life or some portion of it (page 49)

Action research – a type of research aimed at creating social change, in which the researcher works closely with members of a community who participate in the research process and collaborate toward the goal of social change (page 50)

Surveys – research method based on questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population (page 51)

Likert Scale – a way of formatting a survey questionnaire so that the respondent can choose an answer along a continuum (page 51)

Negative Questions – survey questions that ask respondents what they don’t think instead of what they do think (page 52)

Pilot Study – a small-scale study carried out to test the feasibility of conducting a study on a larger scale (page 52)

Probability Sampling – any sampling procedure that uses randomization (page 52)

Simple Random Sample – a particular type of probability sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected (page 52)

Representative Sample – a sample taken so that findings from members of the sample group can be generalized to the larger population; also referred to as a stratified sample (page 52)

Response Rate – the number or percentage of surveys completed by respondents and returned to researchers (page 52)

Reliability – the consistency of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which the same questions will produce similar answers (page 52)

Existing Sources – materials that have been produced for some other reason but that can be used as data for social research (page 54)

Unobtrusive Measures – research methods that rely on existing sources and where the researcher does not intrude upon or disturb the social setting or its subjects (page 54)

Comparative Historical Research – research that uses existing sources to study relationships among elements of society in various regions and time periods (page 54)

Content Analysis – a method in which researchers identify and study specific variables or themes that appear in a text, image, or media message (page 55)

Experiments-  formal tests of specific variables and effects, performed in a setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled (page 56)

Experimental group – the members of a test group who receive the experimental treatment (page 56)

Control group – the members of a test group who are allowed to continue without intervention so that they can be compared with the experimental group (page 56)

Independent variable – the factor that is predicted to cause change (page 56)

Dependent variable – the factor that is changed (or not) by the independent variable (page 56)

Value-free sociology – an ideal whereby researchers identify facts without allowing their own personal beliefs or biases to interfere (page 60)

Basic Research – the search for knowledge without an agenda or practical goal in mind (page 60)

Applied Research – the search for knowledge that can be used to create social change (page 60)

Objectivity – impartiality; the ability to allow the facts to speak for themselves (page 62)

Reactivity  – the tendency of people and events to react to the process of being studied (page 62)

Hawthorne Effect – a specific example of reactivity, in which the desired effect is the result not of the independent variable but of the research itself (page 62)

Deception  – the extent to which the participants in a research project are unaware of the project or its goals (page 63)

Confidentiality – the assurance that no one other than the researcher will know the identity of a respondent (page 63)

Code of ethics – ethical guidelines for researchers to consult as they design a project (page 65)

Institutional Review Board – a group of scholars within a university who meet regularly to review and approve the research proposals of their colleagues and make recommendations for how to protect human subjects (page 65)