Introduction to Philosophy

What is Philosophy?

In the Apology, Socrates is accused of corrupting the youth by teaching them to use philosophy to question traditional values.  In his trial, Socrates tells us that even if he is found guilty, even if he is threatened with death, he will not stop practicing philosophy.  The reason for this, he tells us, is that philosophy is the best way for each of us to care for our souls.

In Socrates’ view, every human soul has three different parts, and each of those parts has a different function.  The appetitive part of our soul deals with our physical needs and desires, the spiritual deals with our emotions, hopes, and aspirations, and the rational part of our soul governs, guides, and directs the other two.  Most of us, Socrates claims, are governed by our emotions and our appetites.  This causes a number of problems in our lives, and oftentimes leads us to act in ways that we later regret.  If, however, we can provide the rational part of our soul with the values that it needs to govern the other two, then we can have a soul that is healthy, balanced, and, at the end of the day, good.  This, according to Socrates, is the role of philosophy.  Philosophy is the practice of thinking critically about the values, beliefs, and ideas that should govern our lives.

So, when Socrates is accused of corrupting the youth his response is that actually, since he is teaching them philosophy, he is doing the opposite of corrupting them, he is helping them to become good people.

Key Terms Chapter 1

argument – a group of statements consisting of premises and conclusions of such a type that the premises are intended to prove or demonstrate the conclusion

atman – the Hindu idea of the true self; the ego or soul; pure consciousness

autonomy – the freedom of being able to decide for oneself by using one’s own rationality

critical thinking – the kind of thinking we do when we base our beliefs and actions on unbiased and valid reasoning that uses well-founded evidence, that avoids false generalizations and unrecognized assumptions, and that considers opposing viewpoints

determinism- the theory that everything that occurs happens in accordance with some regular pattern or law; the view that human actions are completely determined by prior events

duty – in ethics, an obligation; what one is morally required to do; what a morally upright individual must do

egoism – ethical theory that contends that we act morally when we act in a way that promotes our own interests

ethics – the branch of philosophy that tries to determine the good and right thing to do

individualism – the social theory that emphasizes the importance and primacy of the individual, of his or her rights, and of his or her independence of action

karma – the Hindu law of sowing and reaping; the law that, according to Hinduism, determines that the form and circumstances we assume in each reincarnated state depend upon our actions in prior incarnations

metaphysics – the branch of philosophy that studies the nature of reality

monotheism – the view that there is a single God

morality – the standards that an individual or a group has about what is right and wrong or good and evil

objective – possessing a public nature that is independent of us and our judgments about it

philosophy – the love of wisdom; the activity of critically and carefully examining the reasons behind our most fundamental assumptions

pre-Socratics – the Greek philosophers before Socrates

reason – the capacity for thinking logically and making inferences; the process of following relationships from thought to thought and of ultimately drawing conclusions

right – a justified entitlement or claim on others

scientific method – a form of investigation based on collecting, analyzing, and interpreting sense data to determine the most probable explanation

self – the ego or “I” that exists in a physical body and that is conscious and rational

soul – an immaterial entity that is identified with a consciousness, mind, or personality

valid – in logic, having a conclusion that follows from the premises by logical necessity

value (as a noun) – an object or quality that is believed to have worth or be desirable; that which is worthy of pursuit; that which is, or ought to be, regarded highly or held dear

argument – a group of statements consisting of premises and conclusions of such a type that the premises are intended to prove or demonstrate the conclusion

atheism – denial of theism; the view that God or a god does not exist

behaviorism – a school of psychology that restricts the study of human nature to what can be observed rather than to states of consciousness

cause – whatever is responsible for or leads to a change, motion, or condition; an event that brings about another event

deductive argument – an argument in which the premises are intended to show that the conclusion must necessarily be true so long as the premises are true

defining characteristic – a characteristic in whose absence a thing would not be what it is

dualism – a theory that holds that reality is composed of two distinct kinds of substances, neither of which can be reduced to the other, such as: spirit/matter or mind/body

essence – that which makes an entity what it is; that defining characteristic in whose absence a thing would not be itself

existentialism – a twentieth-century philosophy that denies any essential human nature and holds that each of us creates our own essence through our free actions

functionalism – explanation of mental activities and states as terms that mediate or relate perceptual inputs and behavioral outputs

human nature – what constitutes something as a human being; what makes us different from anything else; the collection of qualities that make us human

hypothesis – in general, an assumption, statement, or theory of explanation, the truth of which is under investigation

identity theory – the theory that mental states are really physical brain states

inference to the best explanation – an argument that assumes that the theory that best explains a large set of facts is probably true

judgment – asserting or denying something in the form of a proposition

materialism – the metaphysical position that reality is ultimately composed of matter

mechanism – the view that all natural processes can be explained in terms of mechanical laws that govern matter and its motions

morality – the standards that an individual or a group has about what is right and wrong or good and evil

natural law – a pattern of necessary and universal regularity; a universal moral imperative derived from the nature of things; a moral standard inferred from the nature of human beings that indicates how everyone ought to behave

perception – the processes of seeing, hearing, smelling, touching, and tasting; an observation made through these processes

psychological egoism – the view that human beings are so constituted that they must always act out of self-interest

reductionism – the view that one kind of thing is constituted by or reducible to another kind of thing; in particular the view that processes such as thought and life are nothing more than physical or chemical processes

self – the ego or “I” that exists in a physical body and that is conscious and rational

sense data – images or sensory impressions

sound argument – an argument that is both valid and has true premises

subjective -that which refers to, or depends on, the knower; that which exists in the consciousness but not apart from it

valid – in logic, having a conclusion that follows from the premises by logical necessity

anthropomorphism – the attributing of human qualities to nonhuman entities, especially to God

antirealism – the doctrine that the objects of our senses do not exist independently of our perceptions, beliefs, concepts, and language

categorical syllogism – the most important kind of categorical argument. The categorical syllogism contains exactly two premises and a conclusion. In addition, a categorical syllogism contains only three terms

causality, causation –  events connected together as cause and effect; the relationship between two events in which one brings about or produces the other

compatibilism – view that rejects the idea that determinism rules out freedom and responsibility and that argues instead that causal determinism is compatible with freedom

deduction – the process of reasoning to logically certain conclusions

deductive argument

an argument in which the premises are intended to show that the conclusion must necessarily be true so long as the premises are true

determinism – the theory that everything that occurs happens in accordance with some regular pattern or law; the view that human actions are completely determined by prior events

dualism – a theory that holds that reality is composed of two distinct kinds of substances, neither of which can be reduced to the other, such as: spirit/matter or mind/body

essence – that which makes an entity what it is; that defining characteristic in whose absence a thing would not be itself

existentialism – a twentieth-century philosophy that denies any essential human nature and holds that each of us creates our own essence through our free actions

free will – the capacity or power to act without one’s actions being causally determined by events or conditions outside one’s control

human nature – what constitutes something as a human being; what makes us different from anything else; the collection of qualities that make us human

idealism – in metaphysics, the position that reality is ultimately non-matter; the view that reality consists of mind and its contents

indeterminism – the view that some individual choices are not causally determined by preceding events over which the individual has no control

intuition – a source of knowledge that does not rely on the senses or reason but on direct awareness of something

libertarianism – in metaphysics, the view that determinism is false and that people are free to choose to act other than they do; in social philosophy, the view that the right to freedom from restraint takes priority over all other rights

logical positivism – the philosophical school of thought, associated with Carnap and Ayer, that claims that only analytic and empirically verifiable statements are meaningful and that because metaphysical and ethical statements are neither, the latter are meaningless

materialism – the metaphysical position that reality is ultimately composed of matter

mechanism – the view that all natural processes can be explained in terms of mechanical laws that govern matter and its motions

metaphysics – the branch of philosophy that studies the nature of reality

monism – the view that reality is reducible to one kind of thing or one explanatory principle

nihilism – the view that nothing exists, that nothing has value; the social view that conditions are so bad that they should be destroyed and replaced by something better

objective idealism – the position that ideas exist in an objective state; associated originally with Plato

phenomenology – the philosophical school founded by Edmund Husserl that contends that being is the underlying reality, that what is ultimately real is our consciousness, which itself is being

positivism – the view that only analytic and empirically verifiable propositions are meaningful; the view that all nonanalytic knowledge must be derived from or based on what can be empirically experienced or perceived

postmodernism – late twentieth-century movement that rejects the view that there is only one reality and that through rational inquiry we are progressing toward an ever fuller unified scientific understanding of that one reality

pragmatism – the philosophical school of thought, associated with Dewey, James, and Peirce, that tries to mediate between idealism and materialism by rejecting all absolute first principles, tests truth through workability, and views the universe as pluralistic

realism – the doctrine that the objects of our senses exist independently of their being experienced

relativism – the view that truth or falsity of a class of propositions depends upon the beliefs held by a social group; the view that all human judgments are conditioned by factors such as culture and personal experience

scientific method – a form of investigation based on collecting, analyzing, and interpreting sense data to determine the most probable explanation

skepticism – in epistemology, the view that no knowledge of reality is possible

social philosophy – the philosophical study of society including the study of the application of moral principles to the problems of society, and the study of the nature of freedom, equality, justice, political obligation, and the state.

soul – an immaterial entity that is identified with a consciousness, mind, or personality

subjective – that which refers to, or depends on, the knower; that which exists in the consciousness but not apart from it

subjective idealism – in epistemology, the position that all we ever know are our own ideas

agnosticism – a claim of ignorance particularly of religious matters; the claim that God’s existence can be neither proved nor disproved

analogy – a comparison of two things in an argument which is intended to demonstrate that since the two share one aspect, they must share another as well

atheism – denial of theism; the view that God or a god does not exist

atman – the Hindu idea of the true self; the ego or soul; pure consciousness

avidya – in Buddhism, the cause of all suffering and frustration; ignorance or unawareness that least to clinging

Brahman – the Hindu concept of an impersonal Supreme Being; the source and goal of everything; the ultimate reality

causality, causation – events connected together as cause and effect; the relationship between two events in which one brings about or produces the other

cosmological argument – argument for the existence of God that claims that there must be an ultimate causal explanation for why the universe as a totality exists

design argument – an argument for the existence of God that claims that the order and purpose manifest in the working of things in the universe require a God

dharma – in Buddhism, one’s duty as set forth by the Buddha; the principles whereby self-frustration is ended; the Eightfold Path prescribed by the Buddha

empiricism – the position that knowledge has its origins in and derives all of its content from experience

inference to the best explanation – an argument that assumes that the theory that best explains a large set of facts is probably true

infinite regress – an infinite series of causally or logically related terms that has no first or initiating term

judgment – asserting or denying something in the form of a proposition

karma – the Hindu law of sowing and reaping; the law that, according to Hinduism, determines that the form and circumstances we assume in each reincarnated state depend upon our actions in prior incarnations

maya – in Buddhism, the world of illusion

monotheism – the view that there is a single God

natural law -a pattern of necessary and universal regularity; a universal moral imperative derived from the nature of things; a moral standard inferred from the nature of human beings that indicates how everyone ought to behave

nirvana – in Buddhism, enlightenment that comes when the limited clinging self is extinguished

omniscient – all-knowing

ontological argument – an argument for the existence of God based on the nature of God’s being

religious belief – the doctrines of a religion about the universe and one’s relation to the supernatural

samsara – in Buddhism, the cycle of birth and life

tautology – a statement whose predicate repeats its subject in whole or in part

teleology – the view that natural organisms have a purpose or are designed to achieve an end; a view that maintains that purposes inhere in nature and affirms that the universe either was consciously designed for, or is operating under some partly conscious, partly unconscious, purpose

theism – the belief in a personal God who intervenes in the lives of the creation

a posteriori –  pertaining to knowledge that is empirically verifiable; based on inductive reasoning from what is experienced

a priori – pertaining to knowledge whose possession is logically prior to experience; reasoning based on such knowledge

axiom – a proposition regarded as self-evident or true

Brahman – the Hindu concept of an impersonal Supreme Being; the source and goal of everything; the ultimate reality

empiricism – the position that knowledge has its origins in and derives all of its content from experience

hypothesis – in general, an assumption, statement, or theory of explanation, the truth of which is under investigation

induction – the process of reasoning to probable explanation or judgments

innate ideas – ideas that, according to some philosophers such as Plato, can never be found in experience but that are inborn

phenomenalism – the belief, associated with Kant, that we can know only appearances (phenomena) and never what is ultimately real (noumena), that the mind has the ability to sort out sense data and provide relationships that hold among them

primary qualities – according to Locke, those qualities that inhere in an object, including size, shape, weight, and so on

rationalism – the position that reason alone, without the aid of sensory information, is capable of arriving at the knowledge of some undeniable truths

religious belief – the doctrines of a religion about the universe and one’s relation to the supernatural

scientific method – a form of investigation based on collecting, analyzing, and interpreting sense data to determine the most probable explanation

sense data – images or sensory impressions

skepticism – in epistemology, the view that no knowledge of reality is possible

solipsism – an extreme form of subjective idealism, contending that only I exist and that everything else is a product of my subjective consciousness

a posteriori – pertaining to knowledge that is empirically verifiable; based on inductive reasoning from what is experienced

a priori – pertaining to knowledge whose possession is logically prior to experience; reasoning based on such knowledge

axiom – a proposition regarded as self-evident or true

categorical imperative – Immanuel Kant’s ethical formula: Act as if your maxim (general rule by which you act) could be willed to become a universal law; the principle that what is morally right for one person in one set of circumstances is also morally right for anyone else in similar circumstances

coherence theory – a theory contending that truth is a property of a related group of consistent statements

conceptual relativist view – the view that a true scientific theory is nothing more than a theory that coheres with the conceptual framework accepted by a community of scientists

correspondence theory – a theory contending that truth is an agreement between a proposition and a fact

duty – in ethics, an obligation; what one is morally required to do; what a morally upright individual must do

empiricism – the position that knowledge has its origins in and derives all of its content from experience

Golden Rule – the ethical rule that holds: Do unto others as you would have them do unto you

instrumentalist view – in epistemology, the view that scientific theories can be true only in the sense that they enable us to accurately predict what will happen and that any unobservable entities postulated by the theory do not literally exist

perception – the processes of seeing, hearing, smelling, touching, and tasting; an observation made through these processes

postmodernism – late twentieth-century movement that rejects the view that there is only one reality and that through rational inquiry we are progressing toward an ever fuller unified scientific understanding of that one reality

pragmatism – the philosophical school of thought, associated with Dewey, James, and Peirce, that tries to mediate between idealism and materialism by rejecting all absolute first principles, tests truth through workability, and views the universe as pluralistic

realism – the doctrine that the objects of our senses exist independently of their being experienced

realist view – the view that scientific theories are literally true or false and that the unobservable entities postulated in a scientific theory really exist if the theory is true

relativism – the view that truth or falsity of a class of propositions depends upon the beliefs held by a social group; the view that all human judgments are conditioned by factors such as culture and personal experience